Classroom Management Considerations to Promote Inclusion Essay Example for Free

Classroom Management Considerations to Promote Inclusion Essay In order for a classroom to be truly inclusive classroom management considerations have to be addressed. Will the classroom atmosphere be conducive to learning for all students and how will the climate be modified or adapted to meet these needs? How will classroom goals and rules be established and are they visible and clearly stated in the classroom? Are academic standards clearly stated and visible in the classroom? Does the teacher effectively utilize differentiated instructional strategies for all students? Is the classroom arranged in a manner to accentuate student learning, for example: how are the desks arranged, is there a student seating plan in place, are bulletin or display boards cluttered and distracting, are there technology resources available to the students in the classroom? Are the teachers utilizing flexible co-teaching models in the classroom and is planning time scheduled to create effective lesson planning? These are questions one must ask his or herself in order to create a truly inclusive classroom. Language and discourse in the classroom also plays a role in creating an inclusive atmosphere, the relationship between the teacher and student, the student and his or her peers is part of the social climate of the classroom and must be positively modeled by the teacher. The teacher must find a way to assess and re-assess instructional strategies so that instruction is real-world based and encourages various extensive and engaging learning opportunities for the students. The teacher also has to teach and model positive coping strategies for stress and should remain non-judgmental in their classroom and behavior management approaches. The following is a short list of some modifications or adaptations that can be made in the classroom: †¢ Preferred seating †¢ Pre-printed notes for the class †¢ Visual aids such as graphic organizers like a KWL chart †¢ Choice of assignments †¢ Extended time to complete tests †¢ Fewer questions for classwork or homework †¢ Modified grading utilizing a rubric †¢ Reduce distractions †¢ Teach study skills and coping strategies †¢ Use flashcards †¢ Use of technology to facilitate instruction such as reading and math software to reinforce and teach pre-requisite skills †¢ Visual schedules †¢ Use of manipulatives †¢ Visual communication aids

Symbolic Mediation Internalization Learning Process And Zpd Education Essay

Symbolic Mediation Internalization Learning Process And Zpd Education Essay Second language acquisition (SLA) is a relatively new field, which was seen as an adjunct of language teaching pedagogy before 1960s (Myles, 2010). Ellis (1994) defined three aspects that are responsible for L2 acquisition: external factors (social factors, input and interactions); internal factors (learners existing knowledge and internal mechanisms) and individual learner factors (P. 193). The social factors was investigated under heavy influence from Vygotskys Zone of Proximal Developments (ZPD). In this paper, major focus would be around the notion and application of ZPD, including: defining ZPD and key concepts of Vygotskys theory relating to ZPD: symbolic mediation, internalization,learning process, the role of interlocutor and learner; comparing Vygotskys social cultural theory (SCT) with Piagets cognitive theory; comparing Vygotskys Zone of Proximal Developments with Krashens notion of i+1 hypothesis Symbolic mediation, internalization , learning process and ZPD The social-cultural theory, stemmed from Vygotskys thoughts claims that the language learning process is socially mediated (Lantolf, 2000). Lantolf (1994) stressed that from Vygotskian perspective, the higher forms of human mental activity are always, and everywhere, mediated by symbolic means (P. 418) The symbolic mediation refers to the external process via symbolic signs or tools in social context through which learner can control mental process after internalization (Lightbown Spada, 2006). Lantolf (2000) regards language, among all the symbolic tools, as the most powerful psychological tool (P. 81). Through the mediation of language, the child or learner learns how to perform a task or solve a problem with the help from a more skilled individual (Mitchell Myles, 2004). In other words, the learning process starts as an inter-mental activity, by the more skilled individual sharing through talk, and ends as an intra-mental activity, with the shared knowledge taken in by the unski lled individual. Thus, according to Vygotsky, learning includes two stages: shared understanding in social context through symbolic mediation (mainly in the form of dialogue) and internalization of the shared knowledge by individual. The learning process from a Vygotskyan perspective is described as new concepts continue to be acquired through social/interactional means (Mitchell Myles, 2004, P. 147). Vygotsky defines the concept of zone of proximal development (ZPD), as the distance between the actual developmental level as determined by independent problem solving and the level of potential development as determined through problem solving under adult guidance or in collaboration with more capable peers (Vygotsky, 1978, p. 86). In other words, the role of more advanced interlocutor is stressed by assisting individual crossing the gap between actual level (what the learner can do alone) and potential level (what the learner can achieve with help). The learner is cognitively prepared for solving more complex problems if supported by an interlocutor. More importance has been attached to social interaction between learner and interlocutor, which is regarded as a causative force in acquisition (Saville-Troike, 2006, P. 111). Vygotsky versus Piaget Zuengler and Miller (2006) reviewed the ongoing debates on whether a separation should be made between second language acquisition and second language use and the debates on the commensurability of theories from different schools. It may be interesting to notice that the differences between sociocultural theory and cognitive theory bear relationship with their origins -Vygotsky, the father of socioculture theory and Piaget, the father of cognitive theory. Piaget and Vygotsky are among the earliest proponents to link childrens language development with their cognitive development (Lightbown Spada, 2006). For Piaget, the cognitive development for children is realized through interaction with things around them and is presented by language which is not different from Vygotskys view. They share the view of learner as a social human being who are learning through interaction with environment and of learning and development as a contextually embedded process of interactions (Vianna Stetsenko, 2006, P. 85). However, the dissimilar emphasis that they place on social interaction leads to three major differences. For Piaget, children learn and develop in the environment. For Vygotsky, children not only learn and develop in the environment but also change it through interaction. Therefore, for Vygotsky, language is seen as a more powerful symbolic mediation (Lightbown Spada, 2006). The second difference is adaption versus transformation (Vianna Stetsenko, 2006, P. 87). For Piaget, human develop by assimilation and accommodation to adapt to the environment, whereas for Vygotsky, human develop by actively changing the environment. The third difference lies in their view of the priority between learning and cognitive development. For Piaget, children need to be cognitively prepared to a certain stage before learning, while for Vygotsky, precedence is given to learning instead of development. Therefore, Vygotsky argue for teaching or learning within ZPD, where learners could do more with scaf folding from interlocutors than their independent performance (Zuengler Miller, 2006). ZPD versus i+1 Second language scholars have suggested the feasibility of integrating Krashens i+1 with Vygotskys zone of proximal development (ZPD) based on their similarities. Dunn and Lantolf (1998) have stated the incommensurability of these two concepts not only because they are unrelated but also because they are based on incommensurable theoretical discourses (P. 411) In Krashens view, humans acquire language in only one way-by understanding messages, or by receiving comprehensible input . . . that contains structures at our next stage- structures that are a bit beyond our current level of competence (Krashen, 1985, p. 2). More specifically, three factors contribute to language learning learners internalized grammar,namely the i, input containing linguistic structure a bit beyond learners current level, namely the i+1 and learners internal language processing mechanism (LAD) For Vygotsky, as mentioned above, ZPD is defined as those functions that have not yet matured but are in the process of maturation (1978, p. 86). A more holistic picture has been drawn with respect to language learning learner, interlocutor, their social cultural backgrounds, their goals and motives and all the resources available (Dunn Lantolf, 1998). Learning and development occur in both situations, where learner will surpass their current level either with assistance from a more advanced interlocutor within learners ZPD or with acquisition of linguistic structure i+1, which may contribute largely to their seemingly similarities. However, it would be cautious to notice as well that the development occur with a comparison of learners current level, that is learner himself. Therefore, it would be less justifiable to view the development in Krashens term as an equivalent to that in Vygotskys theory. Also it would be more reasonable to notice that the construct of ZPD and i+1 cannot stand without considering the theocratical frame that they root in respectively. Therefore, a comparison would be made between theories that have incubated these two constructs with respect to the relationship between learning and development, the consequence of learning, the role of language, learner and interlocutor and the role of social interaction. The fundamental difference between Krashens theory with Vygotskys theory is their diverse view on the relationship between instruction learning and cognitive development. Krashen hold the view as a separatist, who perceive learning under instruction and cognitive development as two independent process (Dunn Lantolf, 1998, P. 491). Therefore, Krashen intentionally draw a line between learning and acquisition, arguing that only though subconscious acquisition can comprehensible input be acquired, and learners cognition be developed. Conversely, Vygotsky presented a dualistic quality to development, that is whether learning consciously or not, a mutual influence exists between learning and development ( Dunn Lantolf, 1998, P. 491). Thus, learners are learning and developing at the same time, and the site where learning and development meet is called ZPD. Secondly, Krashen and Vygotsky differ in their view of the consequence of learning, based on their divergent view on learning and development. For Krashen, the outcome of learning is the linguistic structure that is a bit beyond learners current level, and with the acquisition of this feature, learner has developed cognitively, ready to obtain the next i +1. Whereas for Vygotsky, learners are developing along the whole learning process, which means that not only the immediate future, but also the maturing process account for development (Dunn Lantolf, 1998, P. 422). Therefore, it is the variability between acquisition and Internalization (Kinginger, 2002, P. 418). Thirdly, the roles of language, learner and interlocutor are interpreted differently. From Krashens point, language is conceived as a container of linguistic features with comprehensible input and learner as a container with Language Acquisition Device (LAD), the individual process mechanism built inside minds, and the assistance from interlocutor is not necessary (Dunn Lantolf, 1998, P. 418). In contrast, from Vygotskys perspective, language is one of the the most powerful psychological tool of semiotic mediation system (Lightbown Spada, 2006, P. 81), and thus representing the mediated forms of cognition (Dunn Lantolf, 1998, P. 426). Both learner and interlocutor are portrayed as a social human being, with motivation and social cultural identity, instead of a loner with an innate ability to process (Kinginger, 2001, P. 419). Moreover, unbalanced attention is given to social interaction in the frame developed by Krashen and Vygotsky. Krashen assigned relatively little importance to social interaction due to the existence of LAD, despite his support for a weak form of interaction: meaning negotiating proposed by Long (1996). In other words, Krashen argues that the strong form of interaction such as scaffolding or peer collaboration as well as learner output bear no direct relevance to SLA (Dunn Lantolf, 1998). In contrast, social interaction is viewed as the medium and the result of development by Vygotskian scholars (Kinginger, 2001, P. 422). Thus in order to maximize learners acquisition, interlocutor should scaffold the learner along ZPD and learners comprehensible output is as important as comprehensible input. Conclusion Over the past decade, there has been an increasing number of SLA researches conducted under the influence of socioculture theory (SCT) based on the work of Vygotsky (Ableeva Lantolf, 2011; Brooks Swain et al., 2010; Kinginger, 2002; Knouzi Swain et al., 2010; Lantolf, 2007; Foster Ohta, 2005; Swain Deters, 2007; Swain Lapkin et al, 2009). This theory differs from other theory describing the SLA in the stance that social environment is not only a learning context but rather a significant contributor to language acquisition (Swain Deters, 2007). Thus the concept built in SCT framework such as ZPD, cannot be viewed separately away from its origin, which implies that it would be best for any future comparison or commensuration of concepts from unlike theories be made with their roots considered. Also the incommensurability precisely add the value to the theory building in SLA field, not only for the sake of the this particular school itself but also for a helpful reflection for ot her schools.It is with this sharp comparison between different perspectives, a more holistic picture can be draw for L2 acquisition, despite the criticisms been made and the debates ongoing (Zuengler Miller, 2006). Lantolf (1996) have shown his welcome for a future of letting all the flowers bloom in SLA theory building and I simply cannot agree more with him (P.713-49).

The Neighbors :: essays papers

The Neighbors I'm sure going to miss their great friendliness and hospitality. They were always so nice to me, and my mom and dad. They were probably the best neighbors we have ever had. I think Judy was the first friend I met when I moved here from Wisconsin. We were both so young, it's bad of me not going to the funeral. I'll probably regret that I didn't go later on but, I just couldn't handle it right now. "Brandon we' re home". "Yea Mom I'm upstairs, do you think that anyone has moved into the Smites house yet?" "No I don't think so, why?" "Because all the lights are on. Also there is a car that looks like the Smites in the driveway." "You know that is impossible their car was totaled in the accident. The police had to cut the car in half to get the three bodies out." Well don't worry about it. You know we just came from their funeral it must be someone from the real estate company who has a car like John and Beth had. Why don't you come down and eat. We stopped and got pizza." "Sounds great I'll be down in a minute." "Gosh mom why did you get all this pizza? Are you expecting company?" "No Brandon, if we don't finish it tonight, I'll put the left over pizza in the refrigerator." "Sure mom, like we're going to finish it all tonight." "I wouldn't be so sure, I think you are in for a surprise tonight." "Hey.. uh mom what's that old grungy book doing on the table?" "Its an old book that's been passed down through several generations of my family. I thought that you would like to look at it with me and your father." As I took a glance at this queer looking book I noticed the peculiar title that read MAGICO NEGRO. I figured it was spanish but had no idea what it meant. I ignored it and as I was hungry, and sat down for dinner. When I was getting ready to chow down, my mother said "Why don't we pray?" This had me stupefied because we usually only pray when it's a special dinner or holiday But when mom picked up the freaky book I was alarmed and fearful of what she planned on doing! I saw that she had opened it to the "V"s and was looking at the word vecino in capital letters.

flannery oconner: queen of irony Essay -- essays research papers

Flannery O’Connor: Queen of Irony The literary rebellion, known as realism, established itself in American writing as a direct response to the age of American romanticism’s sentimental and sensationalist prose. As the dominance of New England’s literary culture waned â€Å"a host of new writers appeared, among them Bret Harte, William Dean Howells, and Mark Twain, whose background and training, unlike those of the older generation they displaced, were middle-class and journalistic rather than genteel or academic† (McMichael 6). These authors moved from tales of local color fiction to realistic and truthful depictions of the complete panorama of American experience. They wrote about uniquely American subjects in a humorous and everyday language, replete with their character’s misdeeds and shortcomings. Their success in creating this plain but descriptive language, the language of the common man, signaled the end of American reverence for British and European culture and for the more formal use of language associated with those traditions. In essence, these new authors â€Å"had what [the author] Henry James called â€Å"a powerful impulse to mirror the unmitigated realities of life,† in contrast to the romanticist’s insistence â€Å"on the author’s rights to avoid representations of â€Å"squalid misery† and to present instead an idealized and â€Å"poetic† portrait of life† (McMichael 6). In contrast to their romantic and realist predecessors, the literary naturalists â€Å"emphasized that the world was amoral, that men and women had no freewill, that their lives were controlled by hereditary and the environment, that religious â€Å"truths† were illusory, [and] that the destiny of humanity was misery in life and oblivion in death† (McMichael 7). The naturalist writer Stephen Crane, for instance, explored the absurdity of the human condition. His writing most often portrayed humanity as lonesome singular entities relying on their unproven belief in the benevolence of God and freewill, led by their persistent illusions of being the center of the universe, and clueless to the disparity between their greatest expectations and their equalizing bouts of impendent doom. These realist and naturalist writers, with their revolutionary new method of portraying humanity as capable of evil and as likely victims of an often tempestuous environment or seemingly spitef ul heredity, were a powerful influence on... ...pocrisies of her southern environment. In the last year of her life O’Connor wrote, â€Å"You write. . ., what you can. And you become, we can further infer, what you can† (Fitzgerald xix). It was the civil rights leader Martin Luther King who said, â€Å"The ultimate measure of a man is not where he stands in moments of comfort, but where he stands at times of challenge and controversy. Faced with a sure knowledge of impending death from an incurable disease and a South blinded by its hypocrisies and lies, Flannery O’Connor challenged the mores and conventions of her time to emerge a literary visionary and a true example of the best that American literature has to offer. The author used â€Å"the prevailing locution of the South as easily, and as maliciously, as it often occurs there, among blacks and whites alike† (Fitzgerald xix). She spit into the wind of amorality and sin the consequences be damned despite the fact that in her time she was an outsider as a women, a southerner, and a Roman Catholic in the South. Her [natural] gifts produced the fiction, but her situation gave them opportunities, and enabled her to exercise her intelligence, imaginatio n, and craft most effectively (Hyman 46).

Germany’s Inclusion as a Permanent Member of the UN Security Council: Breaking Free from its Historic Subservience :: Essays Papers

Germany’s Inclusion as a Permanent Member of the UN Security Council: Breaking Free from its Historic Subservience The Federal Republic of Germany, once a menacing dictatorship on a path of world domination, is currently the leading nation in the European Union and the third-leading contributor to the United Nations. Germany has come a long way since its reunification in 1990. It is now fully committed to a foreign policy based around peace, stability, and development, Germany is entirely committed to protecting the future of the global community. Germany maintains that the accomplishment of these goals resides in the strengthening of international organizations, specifically the United Nations, and for a more active participation by the German Republic. Germany’s active role in the United Nations can be reflected in its participation amongst the UN’s various arms, specifically the Security Council. Currently on its fourth term as a non-permanent member of the Council, Germany, with a majority of support from the General Assembly of the UN, has declared its willingness for a seat as a permanent member of the Security Council. In an effort to change its bloodied past, Germany hopes its inclusion as a permanent member would allow them to facilitate further peacekeeping missions with greater ease. Additionally, Germany hopes to increase the scope of international developmental projects undertaken by the UN. The idea of a unified federation of the world’s nations was first spawned by German philosopher Immanuel Kant in the late 18th century. Kant believed that this federation of nations would be founded on a platform of â€Å"Universal Hospitality,† in which no person â€Å"had more right than another to a particular part of the earth† (Kant). He also expressed that no country should interfere with the government of another. In addition, larger, more powerful countries shall not use smaller countries for their own gain. Such a federation would perform as a collective security against aggressors. With the conception of the League of Nations, Kant’s doctrine became a reality in the early 20th century after World War I. The League of Nations lasted from 1920 to 1946 with 63 different countries represented (Encarta). Though it lacked the backing of superpowers, such as the United States, and did not sustain its goal of preventing another world war, the League of Nations provided a model for the United Nations in 1941. Germany’s Inclusion as a Permanent Member of the UN Security Council: Breaking Free from its Historic Subservience :: Essays Papers Germany’s Inclusion as a Permanent Member of the UN Security Council: Breaking Free from its Historic Subservience The Federal Republic of Germany, once a menacing dictatorship on a path of world domination, is currently the leading nation in the European Union and the third-leading contributor to the United Nations. Germany has come a long way since its reunification in 1990. It is now fully committed to a foreign policy based around peace, stability, and development, Germany is entirely committed to protecting the future of the global community. Germany maintains that the accomplishment of these goals resides in the strengthening of international organizations, specifically the United Nations, and for a more active participation by the German Republic. Germany’s active role in the United Nations can be reflected in its participation amongst the UN’s various arms, specifically the Security Council. Currently on its fourth term as a non-permanent member of the Council, Germany, with a majority of support from the General Assembly of the UN, has declared its willingness for a seat as a permanent member of the Security Council. In an effort to change its bloodied past, Germany hopes its inclusion as a permanent member would allow them to facilitate further peacekeeping missions with greater ease. Additionally, Germany hopes to increase the scope of international developmental projects undertaken by the UN. The idea of a unified federation of the world’s nations was first spawned by German philosopher Immanuel Kant in the late 18th century. Kant believed that this federation of nations would be founded on a platform of â€Å"Universal Hospitality,† in which no person â€Å"had more right than another to a particular part of the earth† (Kant). He also expressed that no country should interfere with the government of another. In addition, larger, more powerful countries shall not use smaller countries for their own gain. Such a federation would perform as a collective security against aggressors. With the conception of the League of Nations, Kant’s doctrine became a reality in the early 20th century after World War I. The League of Nations lasted from 1920 to 1946 with 63 different countries represented (Encarta). Though it lacked the backing of superpowers, such as the United States, and did not sustain its goal of preventing another world war, the League of Nations provided a model for the United Nations in 1941.

Life and career Essay

Singer’s parents were Viennese Jews who escaped the German annexation of Austria and fled to Australia in 1938. His grandparents were less fortunate; they were taken by the Nazis to Lodz, and were never heard of again. [1] Singer’s father imported tea and coffee, while his mother practised medicine. He attended Scotch College. After leaving school, Singer studied law, history and philosophy at the University of Melbourne, gaining his degree in 1967. He received an MA for a thesis entitled Why should I be moral? n 1969. He was awarded a scholarship to study at the University of Oxford, obtaining a B. Phil in 1971 with a thesis on civil disobedience, supervised by R. M. Hare, and subsequently published as a book in 1973. [2] After spending two years as a Radcliffe lecturer at University College, Oxford, he was visiting professor at New York University for 16 months. He returned to Melbourne in 1977, where he has spent most of his career, apart from many visiting positions internationally, and until his move to Princeton in 1999. Animal LiberationPublished in 1975, Animal Liberation[3] was a major formative influence on the animal liberation movement. Although Singer rejects rights as a moral ideal independent from his utilitarianism based on interests, he accepts rights as derived from utilitarian principles, particularly the principle of minimizing suffering. [4] Singer allows that animal rights are not exactly the same as human rights, writing in Animal Liberation that â€Å"there are obviously important differences between human and other animals, and these differences must give rise to some differences in the rights that each have. [5] So, for example an animal does not have the right to a good education as this is meaningless to him, just as a male human does not have the right to an abortion. But he is no more skeptical of animal rights than of the rights of women, beginning his book by defending just such a comparison against Mary Wollstonecraft’s 18th-century critic Thomas Taylor, who argued that if Wollstonecraft’s reasoning in defense of women’s rights were correct, then â€Å"brutes† would have rights too. Taylor thought he had produced a reductio ad absurdum of Wollstonecraft’s view; Singer regards it as a sound logical implication. Taylor’s modus tollens is Singer’s modus ponens. In Animal Liberation, Singer argues against what he calls speciesism: discrimination on the grounds that a being belongs to a certain species. He holds the interests of all beings capable of suffering to be worthy of equal consideration, and that giving lesser consideration to beings based on their having wings or fur is no more justified than discrimination based on skin color. In particular, he argues that while animals show lower intelligence than the average human, many severely retarded humans show equally diminished mental capacity, and intelligence therefore does not provide a basis for providing nonhuman animals any less consideration than such retarded humans. Singer does not specifically contend that we ought not use animals for food insofar as they are raised and killed in a way that actively avoids the inflicting of pain, but as such farms are few and far between, he concludes that the most practical solution is to adopt a vegetarian or vegan diet. Singer also condemns most vivisection, though he believes animal experiments may be acceptable if the benefit (in terms of improved medical treatment, etc. ) outweighs the harm done to the animals used. [6] Due to the subjectivity of the term â€Å"benefit†, controversy exists about this and other utilitarian views. But he is clear enough that humans of comparable sentience should also be candidates for any animal experimentation that passes the benefit test. So a monkey and a human infant would be equally available for the experiment, from a moral point of view, other things being equal. If performing the experiment on the infant isn’t justifiable, then Singer believes that the experiment shouldn’t happen at all — instead, the researchers should pursue their goals using computer simulations or other methods. Applied ethics His most comprehensive work, Practical Ethics,[7] analyzes in detail why and how beings’ interests should be weighed. His principle of equality encompasses all beings with interests, and it requires equal consideration of those interests, whatever the species. The principle of equal consideration of interests does not dictate equal treatment of all those with interests, since different interests warrant different treatment. All have an interest in avoiding pain, for instance, but relatively few have an interest in cultivating their abilities. Not only does his principle justify different treatment for different interests, but it allows different treatment for the same interest when diminishing marginal utility is a factor, favoring, for instance, a starving person’s interest in food over the same interest of someone who is only slightly hungry. Among the more important human interests are those in avoiding pain, in developing one’s abilities, in satisfying basic needs for food and shelter, in enjoying warm personal relationships, in being free to pursue one’s projects without interference, â€Å"and many others†. The fundamental interest that entitles a being to equal consideration is the capacity for â€Å"suffering and/or enjoyment or happiness†; mice as well as human beings have this interest, but stones and trees do not. He holds that a being’s interests should always be weighed according to that being’s concrete properties, and not according to its belonging to some abstract group such as a species, or a set of possible beings, or an early stage of something with an as yet unactualized potential. He favors a ‘journey’ model of life, which measures the wrongness of taking a life by the degree to which doing so frustrates a life journey’s goals. So taking a life is less wrong at the beginning, when no goals have been set, and at the end, when the goals have either been met or are unlikely to be accomplished. The journey model is tolerant of some frustrated desire, explains why persons who have embarked on their journeys are not replaceable, and accounts for why it is wrong to bring a miserable life into existence. Although sentience puts a being within the sphere of equal consideration of interests, only a personal interest in continuing to live brings the journey model into play. This model also explains the priority that Singer attaches to interests over trivial desires and pleasures. For instance, one has an interest in food, but not in the pleasures of the palate that might distinguish eating steak from eating tofu, because nutrition is instrumental to many goals in one’s life journey, whereas the desire for meat is not and is therefore trumped by the interest of animals in avoiding the miseries of factory farming. In order to avoid bias towards human interests, he requires the idea of an impartial standpoint from which to compare interests. This is an elaboration of the familiar idea of putting oneself in the other’s shoes, adjusted for beings with paws or flippers. He has wavered about whether the precise aim is the total amount of satisfied interests, or instead the most satisfied interests among those beings who already exist prior to the decision one is making. Both have liabilities. The total view, for instance, seems to lead to Derek Parfit’s Repugnant Conclusion[8] — that is, it seems to imply that it’s morally better to have an enormous population with lives barely worth living rather than a smaller population with much happier lives. The prior-existence view, on the other hand, seems questionably indifferent to the harm or benefit one can do to those who are brought into existence by one’s decisions. The second edition of Practical Ethics disavows the first edition’s suggestion that the total and prior-existence views should be combined in such a way that the total view applies to sentient beings who are not self-conscious and the prior-existence view applies to those who are. This would mean that rats and human infants are replaceable — their painless death is permissible as long as they are replaced — whereas human adults and other persons in Singer’s expanded sense, including great apes, are not replaceable. The second edition dispenses with the requirement of replacement and the consequent high population numbers for sentient beings. It asserts that preference-satisfaction utilitarianism, incorporating the ‘journey’ model, applies without invoking the first edition’s suggestion about the total view. But the details are fuzzy and Singer admits that he is â€Å"not entirely satisfied† with his treatment of choices that involve bringing beings into existence. Ethical conduct is justifiable by reasons that go beyond prudence to â€Å"something bigger than the individual,† addressing a larger audience. Singer thinks this going-beyond identifies moral reasons as â€Å"somehow universal†, specifically in the injunction to ‘love thy neighbor as thyself’, interpreted by him as demanding that one give the same weight to the interests of others as one gives to one’s own interests. This universalizing step, which Singer traces from Kant to Hare, is crucial and sets him apart from moral theorists from Hobbes to David Gauthier, who regard that step as flatly irrational. Universalization leads directly to utilitarianism, Singer argues, on the strength of the thought that my own interests cannot count for more than the interests of others. Taking these into account, one must weigh them up and adopt the course of action that is most likely to maximize the interests of those affected; utilitarianism has been arrived at. Singer’s universalizing step applies to interests without reference to who has them, whereas a Kantian’s applies to the judgments of rational agents (in Kant’s kingdom of ends, or Rawls’s Original Position, etc. ). Singer regards Kantian universalization as unjust to animals. It’s their capacity for suffering/happiness that matters morally, not their deficiency with respect to rational judgment. As for the Hobbesians, Singer attempts a response in the final chapter of Practical Ethics, arguing that self-interested reasons support adoption of the moral point of view, such as ‘the paradox of hedonism’, which counsels that happiness is best found by not looking for it, and the need most people feel to relate to something larger than their own concerns. Abortion, euthanasia and infanticide Consistent with his general ethical theory, Singer holds that the right to physical integrity is grounded in a being’s ability to suffer, and the right to life is grounded in, among other things, the ability to plan and anticipate one’s future. Since the unborn, infants and severely disabled people lack the latter (but not the former) ability, he states that abortion, painless infanticide and euthanasia can be justified in certain special circumstances, for instance in the case of severely disabled infants whose life would cause suffering both to themselves and to their parents. In his view the central argument against abortion is It is wrong to kill an innocent human being; a human fetus is an innocent human being; therefore it is wrong to kill a human fetus. He challenges the second premise, on the grounds that its reference to human beings is ambiguous as between human beings in the zoological sense and persons as rational and self-conscious. There is no sanctity of human life that confers moral protection on human beings in the zoological sense. Until the capacity for pain develops after â€Å"18 weeks of gestation†, abortion terminates an existence that has no intrinsic value (as opposed to the value it might have in virtue of being valued by the parents or others). As it develops the features of a person, it has moral protections that are comparable to those that should be extended to nonhuman life as well. He also rejects a backup argument against abortion that appeals to potential: It is wrong to kill a potential human being; a human fetus is a potential human being; therefore it is wrong to kill a human fetus. The second premise is more plausible, but its first premise is less plausible, and Singer denies that what is potentially an X should have the same value or moral rights as what is already an X. Against those who stress the continuity of our existence from conception to adulthood, he poses the example of an embryo in a dish on a laboratory bench, which he calls Mary. Now if it divides into two identical embryos, there is no way to answer the question whether Mary dies, or continues to exist, or is replaced by Jane and Susan. These are absurd questions, he thinks, and their absurdity casts doubt on the view that the embryo is a human being in the morally significant sense. Singer classifies euthanasia as voluntary, involuntary, or non-voluntary. (For possible similar historical definitions of euthanasia see Karl Binding, Alfred Hoche and Werner Catel. ) Given his consequentialist approach, the difference between active and passive euthanasia is not morally significant, for the required act/omission doctrine is untenable; killing and letting die are on a moral par when their consequences are the same. Voluntary euthanasia, undertaken with the consent of the subject, is supported by the autonomy of persons and their freedom to waive their rights, especially against a legal background such as the guidelines developed by the courts in the Netherlands. Non-voluntary euthanasia at the beginning or end of life’s journey, when the capacity to reason about what is at stake is undeveloped or lost, is justified when swift and painless killing is the only alternative to suffering for the subject.

Find the leader on you Essay

Assignment 1: Finding the leader in you: Self – Assessment /Johari Window Leadership can be considered in terms of power capacity and opportunity to give to others, the desire to get involved and take action to achieve a collective goal or achieve a common goal. This power derives an estimated authority, trust or reference mentor who cannot be decreed. Leadership is no way from a status, function or any degree of responsibility. It owes its existence to the recognition of others. 1. Develop a profile of your personality characteristics and assessment results. Personality is not only specific to each, but also a psychological identity of a person distinctive behavioral singularity. It is forged throughout life, from a set of circumstances and experiences. Family executives, professionals or relationship are elements that influence personality. According to (Schermerhorn and others 2012), Personality captures the overall profile, or combination of characteristics, that represents the unique nature of an individual as that individual interacts with others. Personality is determined by both heredity and environment; across all personality characteristics, the mix of heredity and environment is about 50-50† It’s very difficult for somebody to look into the mirror and describe themself. I grew up in a Christian family. I was taught to be honest, modest, and tolerant, to respect others no matter their faith or their convictions. Being asked to describe your personality appears to be a  simple topic. On the contrary, it’s a very difficult and critical exercise. I describe myself as a hard worker. Whatever the circumstances, I have to reach my goals. I do whatever it takes to get the job done, sometimes working extra hours. I inherited that aspect of me from my parents who taught me that, â€Å"to succeed, you must work hard, because sun always shines for those who work hard†. I am not influenced by the gender and race of my colleagues or people around me. I build great relationships with people around me, they appreciate my presence and I have a genuine collaboration with them. I grew up in a multiracial community. We use to play together black and white, male and female. I learnt to respect and embrace different cultures. This helped me better understand cultural diversity. I strongly believe that cultural diversity is a value. Around me I see people with different sexual orientation. I accept and respect their choice, because they may be  influenced by their culture or where they grew up. It’s so interesting to hear people share their experiences. Taking personal initiatives is another part of me. However, I adhere to rational and realistic changes. I have the honesty to recognize my strengths and weaknesses when it comes to skills required for a job. I don’t accept a job if I can’t manage it. I’m ambitious; I love challenges because they reveal my strength and leadership. I am somebody who also learns from my experiences and experiences of others. I like to organize my work by priority and deadlines. I do this so I can produce the highest quality work in the amount of time I have. When I am in charge of a team, I share my vision with my team members and delegate duties with clear and precise instructions and expectations. I value other people’s opinions, suggestions and contributions. My friends, my classmates or my colleagues would tell you that I am a fair man, who always listens when they have something to say. I’m a reliable, flexible, and honest person always open the new ideas, new concept and new experiences. For me, failure is something that should never happen. That is my weakness. So it becomes very difficult for me when I fail to attend my objectives. It takes time for me to accept such situation. That is one aspect of me on which I should take some resolutions. 2. Summarize the result of the assessments you completed for homework in week 1. The 21st century called the century of globalization, is marked by the digital revolution following the development of the information technology. This revolution has given birth to a new form of management, based on constant and innovative changes. Today’s manager must be proactive because technology is advancing very quickly. He must master his professional environment to be effective. In today organization, the person in charge of management should be able to instigate actions and creative ideas. In the ever more demanding world of work, many companies are seeking individuals with more proactive qualities, individuals who take initiative and engage in proactive problem solving. Research supports this, showing that proactive personality is positively related to job performance, creativity, leadership and career success. (Shermerhorn and other 2012). This assessment is applied to Late Steve Job, Co-founder of Apple Company. In term of products, Apple has been at the top for a while. That company is  making products better than anyone else for years. The reason of their success is that Steve was anticipating what people’s needs would be in the future, not what they are right now. A manager has to identify where the market is heading, not where it is right now. That means, he should have a vision. That is one of Steve job traits. I can add imagination and passion. Steve Job has the imagination to create an IPhone which at that time was unique. IPhone is an assemble of six or more most needed products. (Watch, flashlight, telephone, camera, camcorder, music box, calculator and many others services). That was a genius idea. To realize this genius technology, you have to be passionate and willing to settle for a long term goal of achievement. Most companies failed because they put little emphasis on the future. They were focus on day by day management. Kodak was leader in cameras and most photographic supplies. They did not understand the digital revolution. They tried year after year to maintain the same routine. They did not understand people’s need and didn’t integrated changes provided by the outcome of digital technology. That type of management brought the company down. They lost a big part of the market. Transformational leadership style in today organization is most efficient. Leader’s mission is not only to maintain the organization’s stability, but also to bring innovations, high productivity and employee satisfaction. Leaders should inspire followers. Managers or Leaders in charge of organizations should be equipped to challenge conflicts every day, either from employees not willing to change or from organization’s customers or others. Conflict is inevitable among humans. It is a natural outcome of human interaction that begins when two or more social entities engage one another while striving to attain their objective. (M.Afzalur Rahim. 2001). A manager should give all parties to a conflict an equal voice, regardless of their position, length of service or political influence. People in conflict can become defensive if they feel they are being marginalized or are going through a process leading to a predetermined outcome. Time is an important but limited resource that we never seem to have enough. So, a manager must be a well organizing person. He should prioritize, planning and understand completing activities of the organization. Most organizations today are taking organic characteristics. No matter the design, to succeed, leader must socialize with his colleagues. He must be a team player and should have a strong  self-awareness. He must get his followers his passion and his visions. Successful leaders today involve employees in all aspects of the work process: design, manufacture, inventory, marketing. Leaders create team. They don’t issue orders from above. Dale Carnegie and others. (1993). Today’s manager must be proactive because things are going very quickly. He must master professional environment to be effective. 3. Analyze how attribute / scores speak to your relationships and career. By analyzing the results of this self-assessment, I discovered my strengths and weaknesses. My results have revealed the leadership qualities that I have and what I don’t have. Self-assessment # 22 reveals to me that I met more than seventy percent requirements needed to be a manager 21st century manager. I manage stress effectively and focus on the objectives. I socialize with people in my environment. I listen to my intuition when necessary and like to take initiatives. However, I have to personally set my skills to work to a higher performance standard. I work as a manager in a multinational company which retains its value and its name from the quality of products and services it offers to its customers. This conceptualization of standard is not always accepted by all customers. Consequently, to meet my financial goals and also to provide customer satisfaction I sometimes take the decisions to violate the established standards. Transformational leaders typically have charisma and are known for their ability to develop a vision and the ability to inspire others to follow them toward it. The results of transformational leadership take time. Transformational leaders must invest time and confidence; build energy to convince their followers to share their vision. Today, organizations that are not highly equipped and prepared, and who hire transformational leaders are likely to be frustrated and disappointed. It would be important for me to improve my skills on Organizational Leadership style to be able to succeed in my mission. Organizational leadership skills are also required to stabilize an organization because without stability, you cannot install a real vision and get people to share it. The organization that I work for was created by a dozen people whose common goal is to make profit, but with different approaches. We’ve an organic design preference organization. Employees are sometimes under pressure from the shareholders to increase  productivity. That pressure develops stress on employees. The stress generally impacts employees and their individual behavior. It stimulates their instant creativity and generates short-term enthusiasm. In such situation, employees works hard not to improve the company productivities, but to save their job. They become irritable, nervous and resistant. Otherwise, some employees loose the job satisfaction. All those aspects off stress have impact on company productivities. A manager should be able to anticipate and manage employee stress. I understand the necessity for a leader to have both type of leadership style. Definitely, I have to improve my skills in the style of Organizational leadership. My intuition level is above average, but I believe that I’ve room for improvement. The intuition is an important character for a leader because you have to read between the lines to anticipate action. I am able to improve my intuitive skills. Under the management of conflict, I’m pushing for compromise. I think it helps to calm passion and save time for manager and employees. However, I recognize that a leader must sometimes impose his ideas if he strongly believes he is on the right path. In this case the leader must be prepared to face resistance from other parties which may complicate the process. I firmly believe that the leader must be able to manage conflicts and get away without too much damage. Conflict management is also a part of my daily activities. You cannot be a good manager in an organization when you only choose solutions that favor you, especially if you’ve several customer/employee complaints. You have to be open and willing to compromise. Employees and customers may not be always right, but as a manager, I must listen to their complaints and provide satisfactory solutions. I feel more comfortable in an organization that values long-term relationship; one that emphasizes systematic career development, mandates regular training, and provides promotions based on gained achievement and expertise. I recognize that it is beneficial for an organization to train its employees from top to bottom. This instills in them the true value of the organization even though it may not provide a guarantee of stability. It often happens that the well- trained staff leaves the organization to go elsewhere for a higher pay and benefits. To create a balance, I apply the concept of just-in-time training to minimize destabilization of the organization.